In the early 13th century, when Persian-influenced Turks associated with the Delhi Sultanate expanded their dominion into the Bengal delta, Islamic culture began to take root in unique local expressions. This cultural integration became particularly evident after the mid-14th century, following the establishment of independence by Bengal’s Muslim rulers from Delhi. From 1342 until the Mughal takeover in the early 17th century, a series of autonomous dynasties ruled the region, during which Persian was utilized as the primary language for administration and courtly interactions.
Historian Richard Eaton highlighted in an interview with The Indian Express that Bengal serves as a linguistic repository of an earlier Persian era. He remarked, “India acts as a preservation chamber for earlier Persian vocabulary. Certain words that have vanished from Persian over time still exist in Bengali, such as ‘piyala’ (cup) and ‘aasta’ (slow), the latter of which has been substituted in modern Persian by ‘yavāsh.’ Even common phrases like ‘griftar kora’ (to arrest) trace their origins back to Persian.”
Academic Ratul Ghosh, in an email interview, referenced a notable Bengali proverb from the time when Persian was the administrative language: “Ārśi ārśi ārśi/ Swāmī yena bale phārsi,” which translates to “Mirror Mirror Mirror/ May my husband speak Farsi.” Ghosh elaborated that this saying evokes a period when proficiency in Persian was essential for securing administrative positions.
The enduring relationship with the Persian language and a courtly culture rooted in Turko-Persian traditions significantly influenced the development of middle Bengali language, literature, and culture, which subsequently intersected with the complex pathways of colonial modernity in the 19th century.
Although Persian had a presence in regions like Sind, Multan, and Punjab prior to the 12th century, it was the Turkish conquests in northern India and the ascendance of the Delhi Sultanate that solidified the language’s role in the region. Historian Kumkum Chatterjee noted in her work “The Cultures of History in Early Modern India” (2009) that while Persian had been cultivated in pre-Mughal India, it was the Mughal Empire that oversaw an unprecedented flourishing of Persian literary culture in the country.
Persian was officially established as the language of governance during Akbar’s reign, and Chatterjee emphasized its effectiveness as a medium of administration. While Sanskrit was revered and sacred, it was deemed inappropriate for a Muslim ruling class, and regional languages were often regarded as too limited for imperial governance.
Persian already had a notable presence in pre-Mughal Bengal, as noted by academic Thibaut d’Hubert in “The Persianate World” (2019). He pointed out that during the sultanate period, Persian was primarily used in urban centers such as Gaur and Pandua. It was indeed employed at the court for communication and administration, albeit not as extensively as in neighboring Jawnpur and later Mughal territories.
Chinese travelers also recorded the use of Persian at the Bengal court, identifying it as the kingdom’s second language after Bengali. Evidence of Persian influence is evident in court protocols, titles, and architectural styles of the time.
With Bengal’s formal integration into the Mughal Empire in 1576, these Persian influences merged with local traditions. This incorporation brought a wave of migrants from Iranian and Central Asian backgrounds, many of whom were appointed as bureaucrats and officials by the imperial administration, thus serving as vital conduits for Persian culture in eastern India.
In this context, Mughal courtiers were expected to be well-versed in Persian literature, compose poetry, and appreciate music. The early 18th century saw further developments with the emergence of Murshid Quli Khan, who claimed autonomy from the Mughals and established a governance structure that encompassed Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
The Nawabs of Murshidabad focused on consolidating a stable financial state while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Mughal authority. They also promoted a cultural atmosphere rooted in Mughal traditions. Chatterjee remarked, “This culture, characterized by its Islamicate nature, was significantly influenced by a Persianized ethos. The nawabs of Murshidabad honored Muslim scholars and holy men, visited the tombs of saints, and expressed appreciation for Persian poets and writers.”
Persian emerged as the primary language for public administration, tax records, and communication within the court, and it was prominently featured on coins and inscriptions. As epigraphist Mohammad Yusuf Siddiq noted in “Epigraphy and Islamic Culture” (2016), “The expression of Islamic culture in Bengal was most vividly illustrated through the region’s extensive tradition of public inscriptions in Arabic and Persian.”
In this administrative framework, fluency in Persian became crucial for social advancement. Chatterjee observed, “Proficiency in Persian was the essential first step for anyone aspiring to work in the administrative service at any level. The nawabi administration in Murshidabad and its subordinate centers in Dhaka, Patna, and Cuttack required personnel capable of creating, managing, and overseeing records across various government departments that utilized Persian.”
